The Downfall Of Communism In Eastern And free essay sample

Central Europe Essay, Research Paper The Downfall of Communism in Eastern and Central Europe The flooring autumn of communism in Eastern and Central Europe in the late 1880ss was singular for both its celerity and its range. The particulars of communism # 8217 ; s demise varied among states, but similarities in both the causes and the effects of these revolutions were rather similar. As good, all of the states involved shared the common ends of implementing democratic systems of authorities and traveling to market economic systems. In each of these states, the Communist governments in power were forced to transportation that power to radically different establishments than they were accustomed to. Democracy had been distributing throughout the universe for the predating two decennaries, but with a really of import difference. While old political passages had seen similar fortunes, the existent events in inquiry had by and large occurred separately. In Europe, on the other manus, the displacement from communism was taking topographic point in a different context wholly. The peoples involved were non looking to impact a narrow set of policy reforms ; so, what was at interest was a hyper-radical displacement from the long-held communist political orientation to a western design for governmental and economic policy development. The job inherent in this type of monumental alteration is that, harmonizing to Ulrich K. Preuss, # 8220 ; In about all the East and Central European states, the prostration of autocratic Communist regulation has released national, cultural, spiritual and cultural struggles which can non be solved by strictly economic policies # 8221 ; ( 47 ) . While enormous alterations are evident in both the governmental and economic spheres in Europe, these alterations can non be assumed to ever be # 8220 ; reciprocally reenforcing # 8221 ; ( Preuss 47 ) . Generally it has been theorized that the most successful mode of turn toing these many troubles is the drafting of a fundamental law. But what is clear is the unsatisfactory ability of a fundamental law to rectify the jobs of patriotism and cultural differences. Preuss notes that when the constitutional province gained favour in North America, it was founded on the rule of the unitary province ; it was non designed to turn to the deficiency of national individuality which is found throughout Europe # 8211 ; and which is counter to the construct of the constitutional province ( 48 ) . # 8220 ; Measured in footings of socioeconomic modernisation, # 8221 ; writes Helga A. Welsh, # 8220 ; Central and Eastern European states had reached a degree that was considered conducive to the outgrowth of pluralistic policies # 8221 ; ( 19 ) . It seemed that the exclusive ground the ruin of communism, as it were, took so long was the veto power of the Soviet Union. Harmonizing to theories of modernisation, the higher the degrees of socioeconomic accomplishment, the greater the force per unit area for unfastened competition and, finally, democracy. As such, the states in Eastern and Central Europe were seen as # 8220 ; anomalousnesss in socioeconomically highly-developed states where peculiarly rational power resources have become widespread # 8221 ; ( Welsh 19 ) . Due to their longtime attachment to communist policies, these states faced great trouble in doing the passage to a pluralist system every bit good as a market economic system. Harmonizing to Preuss, these jobs were threefold: The echt economic desolations wrought by the Communist governments, the transmutation of the societal and economic categories of the bid economic system into the societal and economic young girls of a capitalist economic system and, eventually, the creative activity of a constitutional construction for political entities that lack the unchallenged unity of a state province ( 48 ) . With such jobs as these to postulate with in re- technology their full economic and political systems, the people of East Germany seemed to be in a peculiarly enviable place. Economically, they were poised to unify with one of the richest states, holding one of the strongest economic systems, in the full universe. In the competition for foreign investing, such an confederation gave the late German Democratic Republic a apparently unsurmountable lead over other states. In respects to the political facets of fusion, it efficaciously left a Germany with no national or cultural minorities, every bit good as holding unchallenged boundaries. As good, there was no demand to make a fundamental law ( although many of the booby traps of constitution- edifice would hold been easily-avoided due to the advantages Germany had ) , because the leaders of the GDR had joined the Federal Republic by accession and, consequently, allowed its Basic Law to be extended over their district. For all the good that seemed to be at hand as a consequence of fusion, many jobs besides arose sing the political transmutation that Germany was undergoing. Among these jobs were the undermentioned: the tensenesss between the Basic Law # 8217 ; s coincident committednesss to supranational integrating and to the German state province, the relationship between the state and the fundamental law as two different manners of political integrating and the issue of so- called # 8220 ; backward justness # 8221 ; ( Preuss 48 ) . The Federal Republic of Germany # 8217 ; s Basic Law has been the longest-lived fundamental law in Germany # 8217 ; s history. Intended to be a ephemeral, impermanent papers, the Basic Law gained legitimacy as West Germany continued to process towards going a major economic power and effectual democratic society. There seemed to be, at first, a tenseness between the Basic Law # 8217 ; s expressed support of re- fusion and its promise to reassign sovereignty to a supranational establishment that would be created. The struggle between West Germany # 8217 ; s ends of national integrity and international integrating remained the chief issue in the state # 8217 ; s political relations for many old ages. As Preuss no Tes, â€Å"It will be highly hard to get away the economic and, in the long tally besides political, deductions of this double-bind state of affairs of Germany, one that remains a bequest of the postwar order # 8221 ; ( 51 ) . Since the fusion of Germany was accomplished through accession, it meant, queerly plenty, that neither West nor East Germany had a say in the other # 8217 ; s determination on whether to organize a incorporate province or what conditions such a fusion would be contingent upon, severally. Put merely, the net consequence of the extension of the Basic Law to all of Germany did non warrant the execution of a new joint government policy or a new fundamental law for the state. It seemed, as a consequence of some esoteric articles of the Basic Law, that the GDR would discontinue to be lawfully and the FRG would last. It was impossible to pull the decision that both would decease out and be replaced by a new political individuality. Many of the Federal Republic # 8217 ; s Torahs instantly applied in the GDR ( Gloebner 153 ) . Article 146 of the Basic Law, put merely, allowed for the revocation of the Basic Law, to be replaced with another regulating system, without antecedently adhering the people to any specific regulations. Apparently, it sanctions revolution, and, # 8220 ; as proved to be the instance in 1990, this is non a strictly theoretical decision # 8221 ; ( Preuss 52 ) . Some suggest that, by uniting through accession, Germany has made jobs which could stop up dominating the benefits of fusion. The suggestion is that the execution of a fundamental law by a society without experience in using it, without the necessary establishments and without the corresponding value system will convey approximately more injury than good ( politically ) . The infliction of the Basic Law was the root for much of the misgiving between East and West Germans following fusion. In respects to the East Germans, the Law was efficaciously self- imposed, and # 8220 ; neither entry nor voluntary self-submission is probably to breed the societal and political coherency which is a necessary status for a stable democracy # 8221 ; ( Preuss 54 ) . In respects to the economic facets of fusion, some major jobs exist in the passage to democracy and market economic sciences. Harmonizing to Preuss, the two chief issues included in the kingdom of # 8220 ; backward justness # 8221 ; are the denationalization of big pieces of province belongings, and the penalty of the elites of the old governments and their companions under the headers of # 8220 ; self- purification # 8221 ; and # 8220 ; corporate amnesia. # 8221 ; The denationalization issue is among the thorniest involved in any state # 8217 ; s passage from communism. For one, a system of processs must be developed merely to reassign such big sums of belongings to private citizens. Besides, there must be mechanisms put in topographic point to both protect new proprietors from claims of old proprietors and to fulfill former proprietors without estranging possible future investors. The job boils down to the fact that private belongings Torahs do non ever coincide with the # 8220 ; just # 8221 ; construct of damages. As Petra Bauer-Kaase writes, # 8220 ; East Germans still hold troubles in seting to a political system where persons have a great trade of duty for their ain life # 8221 ; ( 307 ) . The former Easts Germans look upon this issue with disdain, because it is the Westerners who have control over the regulations, every bit good as the enforcement of those regulations. This is simply one of a battalion of cases where this misgiving manifests itself. There are besides the issues of self-purification and corporate memory loss. Due to the permeant nature of the Communist government # 8217 ; s surveillance plans and so forth, there is really small room for anyone to claim pure custodies. While West Germans can claim that they are guiltless by virtuousness of geographics, East Germans are neer able to get away the intuitions that they may hold been portion of the machine. Government occupations are denied to those who were affiliated with the Stasi, and private concerns besides may deny employment to these citizens. While fusion has occurred theoretically, in world the Germany today is one of Delaware facto separate-but-equal citizenship. There is no denying that at that place have been many jobs associated with the fusion of East and West Germany. The passage from communist province to broad democracy is a really hard one, and there is no existent manner to foretell how the German experience will turn out. As Preuss writes, # 8220 ; The passage from an autocratic political government and its attendant bid economic system to a broad democracy and a capitalist economic system is every bit unprecedented as the short-run integrating of two highly different societies # 8211 ; one liberal-capitalist, one authoritarian-socialist # 8211 ; into one state province # 8221 ; ( 57 ) . In other words, the fusion of Germany is one of the most complicated and unprecedented historical events since the fusion of Germany. Jeremy Waldroop Plants Cited Bauer-Kaase, Petra. # 8220 ; Germany in Passage: The Challenge of Coping with Unification. # 8221 ; German Fusion: Procedures and Outcomes. M. Donald Hancock and Helga A. Welsh, eds. Boulder: Westview, 1994. 285-311. Gloebner, Gert-Joachim. # 8220 ; Parties and Problems of Administration During Unification. # 8221 ; German Fusion: Procedures and Outcomes. M. Donald Hancock and Helga A. Welsh, eds. Boulder: Westview, 1994. 139- 61. Preuss, Ulrich K. # 8220 ; German Fusion: Political and Constitutional Aspects. # 8221 ; United Germany and the New Europe. Heinz D. Kurz, erectile dysfunction. Brookfield: Elgar, 1993. 47-58. Welsh, Helga A. # 8220 ; The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and the GDR: Development, Revolution, and Diffusion. # 8221 ; German Fusion: Procedures and Outcomes. M. Donald Hancock and Helga A. Welsh, eds. Boulder: Westview, 1994. 17-34.

Essay on Diagnosing Organizations

Essay on Diagnosing Organizations Essay on Diagnosing Organizations Essay on Diagnosing OrganizationsThe process of strategic decision-making involves several important steps one of which is the analysis of the situation and current issues along with the diagnostic of the issue in the organizational context. Such diagnosis is necessary for developing a strategy for achieving key organizational goals and eliminating the gaps between existing organizational state and the desired state. In general, the process of organizational diagnostic involves four key steps: the entry phase, the phase of diagnosis, intervention and evaluation phase (Burton, 2004). The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of existing organizational diagnostic models for the diagnosis stage, to consider the strengths and weaknesses of the models, to discuss several issues which Whole Foods Market is currently facing and to determine the best organizational diagnostic model for Whole Foods Market.Organizational diagnosis modelsThere exist different models of organizational diagnosis. Each of these models has its own strengths and weaknesses, and can therefore be applied in specific setting. It is not possible to rely one particular organizational diagnostic model because strategic analysis involves a variety of factors and the assumptions of one model might not be appropriate for the considered situation. Therefore, for an efficient organizational diagnosis it is essential to consider different models and to choose the one which is optimal for the particular organization and for the particular situation. In this paper, seven organizational diagnosis models will be considered:1.1. Force field modelForce field model was developed by Kurt Lewin (Cummings Worley, 2009). This model describes organizational change as the result of the impact of driving and restraining forces. The driving forces enhance the change and push the organization towards the change, while the restraining forces hinder change and create barriers for change (Cummings Worley, 2009). Lewin further offers a strategy for organizational change: identifying both types of forces, weakening the restraining forces, strengthening the driving forces (refreezing the organization), implementing the change and then enhancing the stabilizing influences (freezing the organization in the desired state) (Cummings Worley, 2009).The major strength of this model is its focus on action and change. However, the weakness of the model is its generic nature: the forces in the model are defined quite broadly and it is easy to miss important forces while analyzing an organization.1.2. 7S modelOne of widely used frameworks is McKinseys 7S model. It encompasses seven key organizational variables: shared values, skills, structure, style, staff, systems and strategy (Harrison, 2005). Shared values are viewed as a central component of the model, and the remaining factors are interrelated in a specific way. 7S model is shown on Fig. 1.A valuable finding in this model is the division of organ izational factors into hard structure, systems and strategy, and soft staff, skills, style and shared values (Harrison, 2005). However, the model does not account for external variables and factors, and therefore its use is limited.1.3. Likert modelLikert model also considers seven key organizational variables: motivation, interaction, communication, decision-making, goal-setting, performance and control (Alderfer, 2010). Furthermore, according to Likert model, there are four types of management systems which have different characteristics in the context of seven organizational variables. These four types include exploitative-authoritative, benevolent-authoritative, consultative and participative group management systems (Alderfer, 2010). Furthermore, Likert developed a survey for assessing the type of the management system based on 43 questions (Alderfer, 2010).This model is useful when it is necessary to assess the managerial aspects of organizational functioning, organizational culture, etc. The model also provides instruments for more precise identification of management system. However, this model does not address external factors, individual factors, etc., and can therefore be applied only for a limited range of situations.1.4. Burke-Litwin modelThe Burke-Litwin model encompasses the internal and external factors and the relationships between them in a systemic way. Internal factors included in this model can be divided into three layers. Layer 1 includes leadership, culture, mission and strategy; Layer 2 consists of such variables as structure, management practices, systems and work climate, and Layer 3 includes the match between skills and job, motivation, individual values and needs and performance (Burke, Lake Paine, 2008).The model illustrates how organizational outputs interact with the environment and eventually affect system inputs in the next feedback loop. Furthermore, the model shows the directions of relationships between factors. This mod el is very efficient for describing the dynamics of organizational functioning and can be used to assess complex cases of organizational diagnosis. Its possible disadvantage is the large volume of information required for organizational diagnosis.1.5. Leavitts modelThe model offered by Leavitt focuses on the structural elements of an organization and their interactions. Leavitts model includes four key types of organizational variables: task variables, structure variables, technology variables, people/actor variables (Espejo Reyes, 2011). Each of these variable types, according to Leavitt, is interrelated with other variable types. Therefore, a change of one variable causes the relevant changes in other three variables.This model is efficient for analyzing internal dynamics and for planning internal changes within an organization. At the same time, the relatedness between all four types of variables is a simplification of the reality, and this is a significant limitation of the mod el. Furthermore, Leavitts model does not take into account the impact of the external environment.1.6. Weisbord’s six-box modelIn Weisbords model, six internal categories are considered as the factors driving organizational development. These categories include purposes, structure, relationships, helpful mechanisms, rewards, structure and leadership (Grieves, 2010). The leadership is viewed as the central factor determining organizational change, and the other five factors are represented as interrelated pairs in Weisbords six-box model. Furthermore, this model considers the impact of the environment on the inputs of the organizational system and on its outputs.Organizational inputs considered by Weisbord include finance, ideas, people and technology, while organizational outputs include products and services (Grieves, 2010). For each of the boxes represented in the internal part of the model, Weisbord lists a set of questions allowing to assess organizational efficiency. Thi s model is highly useful since it takes into account both internal and external environment and categorizes internal factors into distinct and reasonable groups. At the same time, Weisbord disregards the fact that each of the boxes can be interrelated with other boxes, and therefore the relationships between internal factors in this model is simplistic.1.7. Congruence modelCongruence model is also referred to as the Nadler-Tushman model. This model combines the benefits of Leavitts model in the sense that it considers internal variables; it is also similar to Weisbords model as it takes into account internal and external factors as well as formal and informal organizational components. The inputs considered in this model include resources, environment, history and organizational strategy; internal variables include formal and informal arrangements, individual factors and task factors (Falletta, 2005). According to congruence model, outputs are classified into individual, organizatio nal and group outputs (Falletta, 2005).Nadler and Tushman considered strategic fit (congruence) between variables as a measure of organizational effectiveness. There are six dimensions of congruence in the model based on the pairs of internal factors (Falletta, 2005). This model efficiently models organizational environment since it accounts for different types of factors and takes into account their interaction and the process of change. For some situations this model might have an excess number of factors and variables, so its strengths can turn into weaknesses in the cases when in-depth analysis of all organizational factors is not required.Current issues faced by Whole Foods MarketThere are two major issues which Whole Foods Market should address in order to retain its market position. First of all, Whole Foods Market is pursuing an aggressive growth strategy which is efficient in the short-term perspective and leads to quick revenue growth, but might hinder growth in the middle -term perspective. Whole Foods Market is cannibalizing its sales due to opening new stores and engaging in horizontal market expansion (Carter, 2014). This issue is further aggravated by the increasing competition from private labels, from local farmers and small shops where organic foods can be purchased.The second issue faced by Whole Foods Market is its premium brand image: while such image allows to achieve high profits, middle and low-income customers perceive Whole Foods Market as expensive and purchase organic foods from smaller competitors (Carter, 2014). Whole Foods Market should focus on offering natural and organic foods to middle and low-income categories of customers and at the same time avoid brand dilution.Choice of optimal modelBoth issues described in the previous section relate to the interaction of the company with the external environment and the need for change for Whole Foods Market which emerges due to the changes in the inputs and external environment. Theref ore, the chosen model should include both internal and external organizational variables and trace the relationships between them. Among the considered models, Weisbord’s six box model, Burke-Litwin model and Nadler-Tushman congruence model satisfy these requirements. However, Weisbord’s six box model simplifies the relationships between the internal factors, so it is not likely to be a viable choice.In the case of Whole Foods Market, the chosen organizational diagnostic model should provide the guidance for organizational change and should also help eliminate the inconsistencies between the existing strategy and market position of Whole Foods Market and the desired market position of the company. Out of Burke-Litwin model and Nadler-Tushman model, the latter is more in line with the requirements since it allows to consider different types of organizational inputs and organizational outputs, allows to evaluate the strategic fit between internal factors and includes org anizational strategy as an input. Since it is currently important for Whole Foods Market to adjust its strategy to match the changing environment and to achieve strategic fit with its previous decisions, Nadler-Tushman congruence model is the optimal choice.